If not, these five online workshops are a must! First Name. Amy Weintraub outlines a study which shows in women with menstrual disorders and mild to moderate anxiety and depressive symptoms, yoga nidra significantly reduced their anxiety and depression. Imagine a sacred journey to Bhutan, the Land of the Thunder Dragon. You will immerse yourself in the majestic stillness of this Himalayan mountain kingdom and be captivated by the spirit and culture of this fascinating country.
You can never stop learning about the body in its physical form and the sheaths that surround it. Thank you to all the teachers and the very professional organisers behind this wonderful insightful course. I gained a much better understanding of how to approach Yoga Therapy for Trauma and feel more confident as a result.
I am still growing from the experience! Enter a Herald with a proclamation; People following Herald It is Othello's pleasure, our noble and valiant general, that, upon certain tidings now arrived, importing the mere perdition of the Turkish fleet, every man put himself into triumph; some to dance, some to make bonfires, each man to what sport and revels his addiction leads him: for, besides these beneficial news, it is the celebration of his nuptial.
So much was his pleasure should be proclaimed. All offices are open, and there is full liberty of feasting from this present hour of five till the bell have told eleven. Heaven bless the isle of Cyprus and our noble general Othello! Michael, good night: to-morrow with your earliest Let me have speech with you. Before the castle. Gentleman We'll wait upon your lordship. Do not doubt, Cassio, But I will have my lord and you again As friendly as you were.
You do love my lord: You have known him long; and be you well assured He shall in strangeness stand no further off Than in a polite distance. CASSIO Ay, but, lady, That policy may either last so long, Or feed upon such nice and waterish diet, Or breed itself so out of circumstance, That, I being absent and my place supplied, My general will forget my love and service. DESDEMONA Do not doubt that; before Emilia here I give thee warrant of thy place: assure thee, If I do vow a friendship, I'll perform it To the last article: my lord shall never rest; I'll watch him tame and talk him out of patience; His bed shall seem a school, his board a shrift; I'll intermingle every thing he does With Cassio's suit: therefore be merry, Cassio; For thy solicitor shall rather die Than give thy cause away.
Clown I dare not say he lies any where. Clown He's a soldier, and for one to say a soldier lies, is stabbing. Clown To tell you where he lodges, is to tell you where I lie. Clown I know not where he lodges, and for me to devise a lodging and say he lies here or he lies there, were to lie in mine own throat.
Using these images and others, a team of forensics, radiology, anatomy will probe into secrets of his death. The Laburnum Top. The poem from Hornbill textbook PDF is about a Laburnum tree whose top is still and silent on a September afternoon filled with sunlight.
Because of the stillness and silence, the tree is like an empty, hollow object — something which shows no sign of life. Then, a Goldfinch appears and sits on this tree, and it seems that the chirruping sound made by the bird made the tree come alive. The movement of the bird as she enters the tree is described as alert, abrupt and as sleek as a lizard. She probably has a nest with her young ones who start chittering, trilling and flapping their wings, which are compared to a machine starting, with the bird being the engine of her family.
Hence, when she flies away, her young ones fall silent, and the tree becomes empty and lifeless again.
Unit 4. The Landscape of the Soul. This prose in the Hornbill textbook PDF is a blend of two types of art forms - eastern and western. To highlight the difference between these two, writer gives examples of two folktales — one from China and another from his native Flanders. In the Chinese story, artist Wu Daozi commissioned by the emperor drew a landscape on a palace wall. While the emperor admired this painting, Wu Daozi proclaimed that the inside of this art to be more amazing than its outside, clapped his hand and entered the painting, never to be seen again.
The fly was so lifelike that at first, the artist tried to kill it, but when he realised it was a drawing, he hired the blacksmith as his apprentice. From these stories, we understand that European paintings aim to imitate life and achieve an exact likeness. Whereas in eastern paintings, the artist wants the viewers to interpret an inner and spiritual meaning of art.
The Voice of the Rain. This masterpiece goes on to describe the process of water cycle — water rising from land and sea towards the sky where the water droplets join to form clouds.
Then the clouds come down as rain to wash away dry and dusty earth, helping all unborn seeds to create new life. This cyclic process of rain rising from land and sea and giving back to its place of origin is forever. A parallel has also been drawn between rain and song — both after originating from their birthplace wanders to distant lands to fulfil their purpose.
Then they return to their origin with love. Unit 5. This movement has played a significant role in creating awareness among all about the importance of preservation of natural resources. Consequently, a shift has been observed from mechanistic to a holistic and ecological view of the world. Furthermore, the world commission on environment and development popularised the concept of sustainable development. Intersemiotic translation or transmutation : It is an interpretation of verbal signs by means of signs of nonverbal sign system.
The second type is seen in replacing certain code-units in Sl by equivalent code-units in TL. The third refers to the use of signs or signals for the purpose of communication; the most important semiotic system is human language in contrast to other systems such as sign language and traffic signals.
Ibid, ; and Shuttleworth and Cowie, Translation Types according to Mode: Written vs. The translated text should, at least ideally and theoretically, be as semantically accurate, grammatically correct, stylistically effective and textually coherent as the source text. On the other hand, we may analogously postulate the following workable definition for interpreting: Interpreting consists in conveying to the target language the most accurate, natural equivalent of the source language oral message.
They also vary in type and degree of intensity as regards the direction of translating or interpreting, i. Below are the main constraints. Linguistic Constraints: They subsume: 1. Syntactic Constraints. The different word order in SL and TL puts a heavy burden on the interpreter.
A case in point is when interpreting a verbal sentence from Arabic into English. The verb may introduce a long nominal phrase. The interpreter has to store the verb and wait for the whole subject before he could retrieve and start the English rendition. Deprived of the sufficient time for manipulation, structural asymmetry often obliges the interpreter to commit pauses and delays among other things.
Phonological and Prosodic Constraints They include features that are non-existent in either SL or TL pertaining to segmental phonemes vowels, consonants, consonant clusters, and diphthongs , suprasegmentals and prosodic features such as stress, intonation, pitch, rhythm and tempo. Cultural and Phatic Constraints to cope with culture specificities whether religious, political or social such zakat, intifada, autocracy and disco in addition to institutional nomenclature exemplified in the different compounds with the Arabic dar house as in guesthouse.
Other examples of culture specificities are the modes of address such as Mr. The act of interpreting is inversely proportional to the above constraints and to such psychological factors as fatigue, timidity or stage fright for interpreters who have to directly address the audience.
It is ear-tongue or hearing-voicing span. Time lag varies according to the nature of the SL message and the number, type and intensity of the aforesaid constraints.
For example, the syntactic and lexical complexities and the pile-up of information segments may oblige the interpreter to lag behind the speaker to get a clear understanding, or at least the gist, of the message so as to reformulate it in the TL. Interpreting Strategies : Discussed in Chapter Four below.
Fidelity entails such parameters as accuracy, grammaticality, acceptability, idiomaticity, and naturalness among others. Interpreting, however, requires other non — linguistic criteria for assessment. The monolingual TL receptors, i. The oral message receptors, i. For almost two thousand years, translation theory has been concerned merely with outstanding works of art. Snell-Hornby 1. Baker, More specifically, George Steiner in After Babel 40 divides the literature on the theory, practice and history of translation into four periods which extend from Cicero to the present, albeit their overlap and loosely chronological structure.
The First Period This period starts with the Romans. Eric Jacobsen in Bassnett, goes so far as to hyperbolically propound that translation is a Roman invention though translation is as old as language itself. Translated documents were discovered in the third and the second millennium B.
It is perhaps the longest period as it covers a span of some years. Both Horace and Cicero, in their remarks on translation, make an important distinction between word for word translation and sense for sense translation. The translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work. The style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of original. The translation should have all the ease of original composition.
Ibid 1. The Second Period: This period, according to Steiner, runs up to the forties of the twentieth century. It is characterized as a period of theory and hermeneutic inquiry with the development of a vocabulary and methodology of approaching translation.
The translator must fully understand the sense and meaning of the original author, although he is at liberty to clarify obscurities 2. The translator should have a perfect knowledge of both SL and TL.
The translator should avoid word-for-word renderings. The translator should use forms of speech in common use. The translator should choose and order words appropriately to produce the correct tone. His views were reiterated by George Chapman , the great translator of Homer.
The Third Period: This period, which is the shortest as it extends to less than three decades, starts with the publication of the first papers on machine translation in the s, and is characterized by the introduction of structural and applied linguistics, contrastive studies in morphology and syntax among others which help the translator identify similarities and differences between NL and FL, and communication theory into the study of translation.
It comprises two eras: first the pioneering era ; the second the invention of the first generation of machine translation. The Fourth Period: The last period coexists with the third period as it has its origin in the early s, and is characterized by a recourse to hermeneutic inquiries into translation and interpretation, i.
The theory offers a general model for understanding, analyzing and describing the functions and evolution of literary systems, its specific application to the study of translated literature. These systems, whether in the original or translated texts subsume several levels: linguistic, cultural, and social, all of which overlap and interact with each other.
It reflects a shift from predominantly linguistic and rather formal theories to a more functionally and socio-culturally oriented concept of translation. The theory endeavours to meet the growing need in the latter half of the twentieth century for the translation of non-literary texts: scientific, academic papers, instructions for use, tourist guides, contracts, etc.
According to this theory, the contextual factors surrounding the translation should not be ignored. These factors include the culture of the intended readers of the target text and the client who commissioned it, and more significantly the function which the text aspires to perform in that culture for those readers.
Likewise, pragmatics stresses the principle of intentionality in translation, i. Translation Computerization Era The invention of computer has led to aspire after an automatic machine translation MT wherein the computer is provided with the ST to be reproduced automatically or — with the assistance of man as a semantically equivalent and well- formed text in the TL.
MT is simply a translation performed either purely automatically by a computer or with human assistance which involves the preparation of the ST, i. The third period is initially characterized by stagnation of research but later by the development of the indirect approach of MT. These systems require various transfer models for different language pairs.
It employs a reference corpus of TTs and STs, particularly statistical-based approaches which use algorithms to match the new TL segments with the built-in SL segments and their equivalents contained in the corpus, then compute the possibility that corpus-based TL equivalents are valid TL segments for the new text to be translated.
Quah, - 2. Bait Al-Hikma House of Wisdom , in Baghdad, functioned as an academy, library and translation bureau which had a personnel of 65 translators.
This method, as in all literal translations, was not successful so that many of their translations were later revised by Hunayn Ibn Ishaq with whom the second method was associated, which exercised translating sense-for- sense. A proponent theorist and one of the best-known writers in his time , albeit never been a practitioner, is Al-Jahiz d. Contemporary Status of Translation Theory It seems that there is no unanimity on the role played by theory in translation practice.
But this scientifically and empirically unfounded view is easily refuted by the general consensus that any translation programme direly needs some sort of principled theoretical background, let alone a rigorous theory, to guide practice. We strongly concur with Bahumaid who characterizes the lack of theoretical component as a serious drawback in most Arab university translation programmes. According to Newmark 19 , translation theory is concerned mainly with determining appropriate translation methods for the widest possible range of texts or text-categories.
It also provides a frame work of principles, restricted rules and hints for translating texts and criticizing translations, a background for problem solving.
Any theory should also be concerned with translation strategies adopted to address difficulties and problems in certain complicated texts. Likewise, Graham in Ross, and 26 asserts that any substantial theory of translation assumes some formal inquiry concerning the general principles of accomplishment, the very principles which define an object and specify a method of study.
A rigorous theory of translation would also include something like a practical evaluation procedure with specific criteria. A good survey of the theories of translation is perhaps best furnished by E. Nida who avers that due to the fact that translation is an activity involving language there is a sense in which any and all theories of translation are linguistic ibid If the emphasis is on the literary texts, the underlying theories of translation are best deemed philological; if it is on structural differences between SL and TL, the theories may be considered linguistic; and finally if it is on a part of communication process, the theories are best described as sociolinguistic.
They are mainly concerned with the comparison of structures in the native and foreign languages, especially the functional correspondence and the literary genres in addition to stylistics and rhetoric. Nida explicitly states: The philological theories of translation are, of course based on a philological approach to literary analysis. They simply go one step further; in place of treating the form in which the text was first composed, they deal with corresponding structures in the source and receptor languages and attempt to evaluate their equivalences …… Philological theories of translation are normally concerned with all kinds of stylistic features and rhetorical devices.
Nida, 3. He elucidates that meaning and understanding underlie the translation process, averring that a theory of translation is essentially a theory of semantic transfer from SL into TL. He looks upon the act of translation in the context of human communication across barriers of language, culture, time and personality, thus subdividing this motion into four stages or moves.
Translation can introduce new elements into the target linguistic and cultural system. The fourth and final stage or move is labeled compensation, restitution or fidelity The translator must work to restore in his language what he has failed to recover from the original text. These theories are perhaps best represented by proponent figures, such as Eugene Nida, Roger Bell and J.
Catford defines translation in Chapter One above as a mere replacement of textual material in SL by equivalent textual material in the TL. In this model, ST surface elements grammar, meaning, connotations are analyzed as linguistic kernel structures that can be transferred to the TL and restructured to form TL surface elements. Semantic translation attempts to render, as closely as the semantic and syntactic structures of the second language allow, the exact contextual meaning of the original.
There are, however, differences among linguistic theories, the principal of which, Nida Ibid maintains, lies in the extent to which the focus is on surface structures or corresponding deep structures. Theories based on surface-structures comparisons involve the use of elaborate sets of rules for matching corresponding structures, whereas those based on deep-structures involve transformational analyses employed in teaching the methods of translation. Functional Theories The s and s witnessed a shift from the static linguistic typologies of translation and the emergence , in Germany, of a functionalist and communicative approach to the analysis of translation.
These theories subsume the early work on text type and language function, the theory of translational action, skopos theory Baker, ; and Shuttleworth and Cowie, 2oo and text- analysis model. Text- type Theory Built on the concept of equivalence, which is the milestone in linguistic theories, the text, rather than the word or sentence, is deemed the appropriate level at which communication is achieved and at which equivalence must be sought Reiss , Reiss links the functional characteristics of text types to translation methods.
The main characteristics of each text type can be summarized as follows pp. Operative: The purpose is to induce behavioural responses, i. Audiomedial: It refers to films and visual or spoken advertisements which supplement the other three functions with visual images, music, etc. These methods can be described as follows: 1. The TT of an informative text should transmit the full referential or conceptual content of the ST. The TT of an expressive text should transmit the aesthetic and artistic form of the ST.
The TT of an operative text should produce the desired response in the TT receiver. The translation should create an equivalent effect among TT readers. The text type approach moves translation theory beyond a consideration of lower linguistic levels, the mere words beyond even the effect they create, towards a consideration of the communicative purpose of translation Munday, The theory stresses the production of the TT as functionally communicative for the reader, i.
Nord elucidates that translating i. The skopos theory is criticized by the linguistically oriented approaches on the ground of the oversimplification that is inherent in functionalism, the focus on the message at the expense of richness of meaning and to the detriment of the authority of SL text Newmark, ; in Baker, Another criticism of this theory is that even though a translation may indeed fulfill its intended skopos perfectly well, it may nevertheless be assessed as inadequate on other counts, particularly as far as lexical, syntactic, or stylistic decisions on the microlevel are concerned.
They do not completely overlook language structures, instead they deal with it at a higher level in accordance to their functions in the communicative process. These structures may involve rhetorical devices or figures of speech such as simile, metaphor, irony, hyperbole, etc.
These theories require the translator exhibit language competence as well as language performance. Interpretative Theory or Theory of Sense This theory, originally designed to reflect the processes which are involved in conference interpreting, is associated with a group of scholars known as the Paris School. It is a reaction against some of the restricted views of linguistics of the time. The corollary is that the focus should be on the intended meaning or the sense rather than the words of the ST.
Systems Theories 3. Polysystem theory also offers three insights into translation Baker, : 1. It is more profitable to view translation as one specific instance of the more general phenomena of inter-systemic transfer. Instead of limiting the discussion to the nature of the equivalence between ST and TT, the translation scholar is free to focus on the TT as an entity existing in the target polysystem. The approach to translation would accordingly be target-oriented, aiming at investigating the nature of the TT in terms of the features which distinguish it from other texts originating within a particular system.
Furthermore, TTs cease to be viewed as isolated phenomena, but are rather thought of as manifestations of general translation procedures which are currently prevalent in the target polysystem. The TT is not simply the product of selections from sets of ready-made linguistic options, instead shaped by systemic constraints of a variety of types of language structure in addition to genre and literary taste.
Accordingly, translation process is deemed a rewriting process and the translator is a re-writer who can alter or manipulate the ST in such a way as to be acceptable in the target language and culture. Aesthetic Communication theory The above theory, we propound, is creativity-oriented specifically for literary translation, which is essentially an aesthetic communication between the translator and the target reader.
It is also based on the nature of literature be it original or translated. It is perhaps conspicuously indisputable that literary translation, just like literary original composition, is not only informative, i. It performs a semantic and aesthetic binary function. In point of fact, information in literary texts is aesthetically framed, which distinguishes such texts from non-literary ones.
Literary composition, be it original or translated, is a dynamic texture of vivid stylistic variations, it has no room for monotony, dullness and stagnation.
To this end, it employs a foregrounded structure, highly elevated style and literary diction. As-Safi, Likewise, literary translation which should ideally be a work of literature is dynamic rather than static: it should be more like AN original rather than THE original work of art.
Be appropriate, i. The following figure illustrates that translation is essentially a communicatively manipulated act. By necessity, he reads each word and each sentence in the ST as carefully as a critic before he transfers and finally composes it in the TL. Such a transference and composition can never be achieved through literal, i.
Such a translation impedes the translator's work and stifles his creativity which is a manifestation of his competence and intelligence. There is nothing new in repudiating literalism in translation, on which there is now almost a general consensus.
Ideas are common to the understanding of all men but words and manners of speech are particular to different nations. Bracketing is Lefevere's.
Relevance Theory Relevance theory is associated with pragmatics, which is primarily concerned with how language is used in communication, particularly with the way meaning is conveyed and manipulated by the participants in a communicative situation. The former use is explicated by Gutt as follows: The fundamental characteristic of the interpretive use of language is not just the fact that two utterances interpretively resemble one another, but that one of them is intended to be relevant in virtue of its resemblance with the other utterance.
In other words, relevance theory endeavours to give an explicit account of how the information-processing faculties of the mind enable us to communicate with one another. Its domain is therefore mental faculties rather than texts or processes of text production Gutt: The theory then represents a shift from description to explanation, as elucidated below.
Relevance theory is not a descriptive-classificatory approach. It does not try to give an orderly description of complex phenomena by grouping them into classes, but tries instead to understand the complexities of communication in terms of cause-effect relationship Gutt, Towards a Comprehensive, Applicable Theory of Translation It is perhaps a very arduous task to formulate a comprehensive, applicable theory amidst multiplicity, miscellany and disparity of the existing theories.
Nevertheless, We try tentatively to furnish such a theory, depending particularly on some authentic references. When generalizations are universally applicable and predictable they become principles, norms, rules or laws to govern the translation activity.
In the same vein, Graham asserts that any substantial theory of translation assumes some formal inquiry concerning the general principles which define an object and specify a method of study, Furthermore, a rigorous theory of translation would also include a practical evaluation procedure. Bracketing is mine. But instead of one theory which caters for both process and product, Bell p.
A theory of translation as a process i. This would require a study of information processing and, within that, such topics as a perception, b memory and c the encoding and decoding of messages, and would draw heavily on psychology and psycholinguistics. A theory of translation as a product i. A theory of translation both process and product i. This would require the integrated study of both, and such a general theory is, presumably, the long-term goal for translation studies.
To the third type, i. Accordingly, translation is a tri- phase activity. In fact, the intricate nature of translation makes it mandatory to relate the product to the tri-phase process As-Safi, , though the constituent phases are not autonomously separate from each other.
First comes the phase of decoding, whereby the original text is analysed for a thorough acquaintance both thematically and stylistically, that is, for full comprehension and stylistic appreciation.
The initial step in the textual analysis carried out conventionally and perhaps subcon- sciously by most translators is to segment the text into a number of units: words, phrases, clauses and sentences within each of which the distribution of denotative and connotative meanings are scanned. A pertinent test of intelligibility is purported by Nida In his "cloze-technique" the reader is provided with a text in which, for example, every fifth word is deleted, and he is asked to fill in with whatever words that seem to fit the context best.
The degree of comprehensibility is related to the degree of predictability. It is assumed that the easier it is for the reader to guess the next word in a sentence, the easier to comprehend the word in the given contexts and the greater the number of correct guesses, the greater the predictability and consequently the easier the text.
The second phase is that of "transcoding" or transfer. In most cases, however, equivalence is far from being identical, or as Catford 27 puts it, "nearly always approximate, since every language is ultimately sui generis". Items are said to be equivalent in the two languages when they are interchangeable in a given situation. Lexically, equivalence appears to rest on the principle of bilingual synonymy: the notion that words are mere labels of real things goes back as far as Plato and carries over to some extent into De Saussure's concept of the sign De Beaugrande, In such a simplified view, translation consists of exchang- ing labels, consulting if need be a dictionary or an informant, and it underlies the awkward, literal or word- for-word transfer and what Dryden terms 'metaphrase'.
Such a view has been recently questioned, by many linguists and celebrated translators, for true synonymy - the property of words to be mutually interchangeable in two contexts — is quite rare for most 'abstract' items, let alone the highly emotive or connotative, the language-specific and culture-specific ones. In consequence, the translator cannot easily or immediately furnish solutions to all problems regarding equivalence albeit resorting to an exhaustive search through all available reference materials.
If an equivalent expression cannot be located, he must find some parallel expression that will yield approximately the same kind of effect produced by the original. Idioms, and figures of speech, such as allegory, metaphor, parable or simile, are cases in point. The metaphor baidha' white in the Arabic expression lailatun baidha' cannot be rendered as such i. Yet even when the task of harmonizing grammatically correct structures is accomplished, the product of transfer may be accurate but perhaps wooden: it is something more than a gloss and something less than a literary work.
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